The thirteenth volume in the widely recognized Innovations of GIS series, this book investigates each of these questions in turn, explicitly addressing all aspects of GIS application in the natural environment. PMID:19914684 The variation of different ecosystems on the terrestrial carbon balance is predicted to be large. Atkinson). 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Data models and scales of measurement. 4.2.1 Raster imagery. 4.2.1.1 Raster imagery and the RF model. 4.2.1.2 Scales of measurement in remotely sensed imagery. 4.2.2 Vector data. 4.2.2.1 Vector data and the object-based model. 4.2.2.2 Scales of measurement. 4.3 Scales of spatial variation. 4.3.1 Spatial variation in raster data. 4.3.1.1 Characterizing scales of spatial variation. 4.3.1.2 Characterizing error. 4.3.1.3 Upscaling and downscaling. 4.3.2 Scales of variation in vector data. 4.3.3 Processes in the environment. 4.3.3.1 Processes and forms. 4.3.3.2 Process modelling. 4.3.3.3 Scales of representation. 4.4 Remote sensing and GIS data integration. 4.4.1 Overlay and regression. 4.4.1.1 Scales of measurement. 4.4.1.2 Transformation. 4.4.1.3 Geometric error. 4.4.2 Remote sensing classification of land cover. 4.4.1.1 Per-field classification. 4.4.1.2 Soft classification and subpixel allocation. 4.4.1.3 A note on downscaling and super-resolution mapping. 4.5 Conclusion. 5.

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